Waterloo's 200th anniversary: how Wellington beat Napoleon

This month marks the bicentenary of the Battle of Waterloo, in which Napoleon Bonaparte was defeated in present day Belgium by a military alliance commanded by the Duke of Wellington.

A ceremony has taken place at St Paul's cathedral as part of a series of events across the continent mark the historic battle, which cost thousands of British and allied lives.

In Belgium, the King and Queen led the official commemorations at the Lion's Mound monument on the battle site, attended by the Duke of Kent.

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Members of the Royal Family, including the Prince of Wales and the Duchess of Cornwall, as well as the British prime minister David Cameron were among those who paid their respects at the service in London. Representatives of the British Armed Forces and descendants of the soldiers who fought in the battle were also in attendance.

"This anniversary means a great deal," Squadron Sergeant Major Tony Gray of the Light Cavalry told the BBC. "The battle changed history. Had we not won, we probably would be speaking French now."

Yesterday, Prince Charles unveiled a memorial to British soldiers at Hougoumont Farm, the site of some of the fiercest fighting. The life-size statue depicts two soldiers struggling to close the gates before the arrival of the French.

"The monument to the whole British Army is important," Barry van Danzig, a trustee of the Hougoumont restoration project told The Guardian. "We all hear about Wellington’s victory, but it was the guys on the ground that did it.”

When was the battle of Waterloo and who took part?

Fought on Sunday 18 June 1815 near Waterloo, in what is now central Belgium, the battle was contested between Wellington, with his British, Dutch, Belgian and Hanoverian army, and Napoleon Bonaparte with his French Imperial Guard. It was a clash of the titans: both men were military giants, they were the same age, celebrated strategists and had several victories under their belts.

How did both men come to face each other at Waterloo?

Napoleon, who had risen through the ranks of the army during the French Revolution (1789-1799), had taken control of the French government in 1799 and became emperor in 1804. He was desperate to build a military empire, but a series of defeats led to his abdication and exile in 1814.

In 1815, he returned to Paris with 1,000 supporters alongside him. The new king, Louis XVIII, promptly fled. With his ambitions for an empire rekindled, Napoleon then embarked on what came to be known as his Hundred Days campaign, prompting Britain, Prussia, Russia and Austria to declare war on him.

In June, he invaded Belgium, then part of the Netherlands, in the hope of capturing Brussels. Separate armies of British and Prussian troops were camped there. On June 16, Napoleon’s men defeated the Prussians, who were under the command of Gebhard Leberecht von Blucher. Two days later, his army faced Wellington, who was based south of Brussels, near Waterloo.

How was Napoleon defeated?

A significant factor leading to his defeat was his decision to wait until midday to attack the British. There had been heavy rain the previous evening and Napoleon wanted to allow the sodden ground to dry. However, the delay allowed Blucher’s remaining troops – as many as 30,000 according to some historians – time to march to Waterloo and join forces with the British. This proved crucial.

The two sides fought for ten hours. Napoleon committed a number of tactical errors and also appointed inappropriate men as commanders. The arrival of Blucher’s men tipped the balance against him. However, Wellington said afterwards that the victory was by no means crushing. He described the battle as “the nearest-run thing you ever saw in your life”.

The fighting ended when the outnumbered French retreated in defeat. Both sides faced horrific losses. Historians estimate that Napoleon’s army suffered more than 33,000 casualties, while British and Prussian casualties numbered around 22,000. The battle was the final defeat of Napoleon Bonaparte.

What happened next for the two generals?

Wellington went on to serve as British Prime Minister, while Napoleon was forced to abdicate for a second and final time. He was exiled to the remote island of Saint Helena in the South Atlantic. He died there in 1821, at the age of 51.

Wellington said generously of Napoleon: “His presence on the field made the difference of forty thousand men.” Napoleon did not return the compliment, saying of Wellington: “He is a bad general and the English are breakfast!”

How will the anniversary be marked?

Belgium will host a major reconstruction of the battle, including 5,000 actors and 300 horses, while in Britain the National Army Museum is hosting a collection of objects from the time. The Royal Albert Hall will stage a 200th anniversary concert, featuring a series of scenes and music.

Earlier this year, the earliest artistic image of the battlefield of Waterloo – depicting the naked bodies of fallen soldiers – went on display after being discovered in a private collection.

How do the French feel about Waterloo commemorations?

They're not happy. France objected earlier this year to Belgian plans to mint a commemorative €2 coin, claiming that it would provoke an "unfavourable reaction". The Belgian government appeared to surrender, agreeing to scrap 180,000 coins that had already been stuck – but now it has mounted a counter-attack.

"This week, Belgium decided to circumvent French resistance by invoking a little-known European Union rule that allows countries to issue euro coins of their choice, provided they are in an irregular denomination," the New York Times reports. The result is a Waterloo-themed €2.50 coin that will be legal tender only in Belgium.

"The goal is not to revive old quarrels in a modern Europe — and there are more important things to sort out," said Johan Van Overtveldt, the Belgian finance minister. "But there’s been no battle in recent history as important as Waterloo, or indeed one that captures the imagination in the same way."